Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International

Levonorgestrel in Emergency Contraception: Pharmacology, Mechanism of Action and Clinical Implications: A Review

Palki Hazarika — 2026-03-31

Contraception plays an important role in reproductive health by preventing unintended pregnancies and enabling effective family planning. Among the various hormonal contraceptives developed over the years, levonorgestrel (LNG) has emerged as one of the most widely used and effective agents. Levonorgestrel is a second-generation synthetic progestin derived from 19-nortestosterone and has been extensively used in oral contraceptive pills, emergency contraceptives, intrauterine systems, and implantable devices. The present review aims to summarize the historical development of contraceptive methods with special emphasis on the discovery, uses, mechanism of action, and possible adverse effects of levonorgestrel. Information for this review was collected from secondary sources including scientific journals, books, and electronic databases such as Google Scholar and PubMed. Available literature indicates that levonorgestrel primarily acts by inhibiting or delaying ovulation, suppressing the luteinizing hormone surge, increasing the viscosity of cervical mucus, and inducing changes in the endometrium that reduce the probability of fertilization and implantation. Although levonorgestrel is considered safe and highly effective, certain side effects such as menstrual irregularities, nausea, headache, and endometrial changes have been reported. Overall, levonorgestrel remains an important and reliable contraceptive agent with significant contributions to modern reproductive health care. Continued research is necessary to further understand its long-term effects and to improve contraceptive strategies for better safety and effectiveness.

Bioanalytical Method Validation of LC–MS/MS Assays for Trazodone: A Critical Review Based on USFDA and ICH M10 Guidelines

Vaishnavi Dhangude — 2026-04-04

Trazodone (TZD) is widely used for the treatment of major depressive disorder, anxiety-related disorders, and insomnia. Accurate quantification of TZD in biological matrices is essential for pharmacokinetic, bioavailability, and bioequivalence studies. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) has become the preferred technique for TZD bioanalysis because of its high sensitivity, selectivity, and ability to analyze complex biological samples. This review critically evaluates reported LC–MS/MS bioanalytical methods developed for the determination of TZD in human plasma, with special emphasis on bioanalytical method validation parameters in accordance with United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) and International Council for Harmonisation (ICH M10) guidelines. Key validation parameters including selectivity, linearity, accuracy, precision, recovery, matrix effect, stability, carryover, and dilution integrity are discussed and compared across reported studies. In addition, commonly observed gaps in regulatory compliance are identified and practical recommendations are proposed for improving analytical robustness. The review also highlights emerging regulatory expectations and analytical trends in LC–MS/MS bioanalysis. Overall, this work provides a consolidated reference for researchers and bioanalytical scientists involved in TZD analysis and supports the development of robust, regulatory-compliant LC–MS/MS methods.

Precision Tunneling Modification for Isolated Cairo’s Recession Type-1 Coverage in Lower Anterior Teeth: A Case Report

K. J. Nagasurthi — 2026-03-21

Gingival recession is a common mucogingival deformity associated with aesthetic concerns, dentinal hypersensitivity, root caries and plaque retention. Among the various root coverage procedures, the tunneling technique combined with connective tissue graft (CTG) has gained popularity due to its minimally invasive nature and superior aesthetic outcomes. This case report describes the management of an isolated Cairo’s Recession Type-1 (RT-1) in relation to a mandibular incisor using a microsurgical tunneling approach with CTG and root biomodification using 17% EDTA. Complete root coverage with excellent tissue integration and colour harmony was achieved. Preservation of interdental papillae, enhanced vascularity, and reduced surgical trauma contributed to predictable healing. This report highlights the clinical effectiveness of microsurgical tunneling with CTG as a reliable treatment modality for isolated gingival recession defects.

Evaluation of in-vitro Anti-ulcer Potential of Aerial Parts of Crossandra infundibuliformis Linn

P. Hemadharsni — 2026-04-02

Ulcer formation in humans may be precipitated by a range of factors, including psychological stress and the prolonged use of anti-inflammatory medications. Although the aetiology remains undefined in many cases, it is widely accepted that ulcer development arises from an imbalance between aggressive factors and the mechanisms responsible for maintaining mucosal integrity via endogenous defence systems. To evaluate the anti-ulcer activity of Crossandra infundibuliformis linn extract using an In-vitro experimental study. This study examined the potential of ethanol extract of Crossandra infundibuliformis to block H+/K+ ATPase in order to determine whether it may be utilized to cure ulcers. It involved evaluating the acid-neutralizing capacity of different concentrations of extracts with a standard antacid. The extract significantly reduced acid neutralizing capacity to 25 at a concentration of 500 μg/ml as compared to 45 with standard Aluminium hydroxide + Magnesium hydroxide (50 mg/ml). While in H+ /K+ - ATPase inhibition activity, the extract showed maximum percentage inhibition of 71.76% at the concentration 500μg as compared to 90.66% with standard Omeprazole. The results of this study suggest that Crossandra infundibuliformis ethanol extract contains substances that can block enzymes and neutralize acids, making it a better treatment for digestive issues.

Immune Tuberculous Anergy: An Opinion Perspective

Ibrahim M. S. Shnawa — 2026-03-21

Immune Anergy (IA) is based upon cellular and molecular mechanisms that are finalized by T and/or B lymphocyte dysfunction. Comparative immune-biology of anergic B cell, anergic T and anergic T-exhausted T cell were summed up. IA appeared as a block in lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine inhibition. I t is associated with chronic persistent intracellular microbial infection like tuberculosis and leprosy. It is molecular mechanism found valid for prolongation of tissue graft acceptance and for autoimmunity prevention. IA shared an in common immune features with; immune exhaustion, immune resilience and be a part of immune tolerance. The IA concept, paradigm, mechanisms and immune features were elucidated. Biology of anergy and allied concepts were briefed. The objective of the present opinion paper was to make an at glance insight to IA and showcase one of our previous works on tuberculous immune anergy. Adult anergic tuberculous patients have been showing decline in adaptive cellular immune function and normal innate cellular immune functions compared to tuberculin positive pulmonary tuberculosis patients.