Battle with COVID-19: Role of Vitamin D and Zinc as a Preventive Strategy
Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International,
Page 32-39
DOI:
10.9734/jpri/2020/v32i2130750
Abstract
The immune system protects us by producing antibodies against viruses and diseases. Currently, there is no cure in treating patients infected with COVID-19. Even though many nations declared extrapolate findings on the COVID-19 vaccine trial, this will require months to develop an effective vaccine successfully. Meanwhile, an immune-enhancing preventive approach can be considered in order to strengthen the immune system that would enhance the host's resistance to infection. Although the leading health authorities of national and international health institutions, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP), and the World Health Organization (WHO) consistently providing standard guidelines focusing on treatment, prevention, and promotion perspectives, this article discussed the promising alternative prophylactic solutions in enhancing host immunity with a highly valuable supplements Zinc, Vitamin D to protect human beings from COVID-19 pandemic disease.
Keywords:
- Treatment of COVID-19
- vitamin D
- zinc
- host Immunity
How to Cite
Ramaiah, P., Elfaki, B. A. A. M., & Mustafa, H. E. M. (2020). Battle with COVID-19: Role of Vitamin D and Zinc as a Preventive Strategy. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International, 32(21), 32-39. https://doi.org/10.9734/jpri/2020/v32i2130750
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Jayawardena R, Sooriyaarachchi P, Chourdakis M, Jeewandara C, Ranasinghe P. Enhancing immunity in viral infections, with special emphasis on COVID-19: A review. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2020;14(4): 367-382.
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Retrieved August 4, 2020.
Holick MF. The vitamin D deficiency pandemic approaches for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Rev Endocrine Metab Disord. 2017;18:153-165.
Pike JW, Meyer MB. Fundamentals of vitamin D hormone-regulated gene expression. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2014;144:5-11.
Hi CS, Ferrante A. The non-genomic actions of vitamin D. Nutrients. 2016;8(3):135. doi:10.3390/nu803013
Zhang L, Liu Y. Potential interventions for novel coronavirus in China: A systematic review. J Med Virol. 2020;92:479-490.
Sapkota M, Knoell DL. Essential Role of Zinc and Zinc Transporters in Myeloid Cell Function and Host Defense against Infection. J Immun Res. 2018;1-8.
Intermountain healthcare. Want a defense against COVID-19? Strengthen your immune system; 2020.
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Martineau AR, Jolliffe DA, Hooper RL, Greenberg L, Aloia JF, Bergman, et al. Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory infections: systemic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. Jr BMJ. 2017;356:6583.
DiRosa M, Malaguarnera M, Nicoletti F, Malaguarnera L. Vitamin D3: A helpful immune-modulator. Immunology. 2011; 134:123-139.
Martineau AR, Forouhi NG. Vitamin D for COVID-19: a case to answer? The Lancet Diab Endocrinology. 2020;20(3):S2213-8587.
Lau FH, Majumder R, Torabi R. MedRxiv. Vitamin D deficiency is prevalent in severe COVID-19; 2020.
Biesalski HK. Vitamin D deficiency and co-morbidities in COVID-19 patients- A fatal relationship?. NFS Journal; 2020.
Das S. Zinc can play a pertinent role in mitigating Covid-19. ET Health World.com; 2020
Ali N. Role of vitamin D in preventing COVID-19 infection, progression, and severity (Online) J Infect Public Health. 2020;S1876-341(20):30531.
Huang C, Wang LX, Ren L, Zhao, Hu Y, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel Coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet; 2020.
Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan. China: a descriptive study. Lancet; 2020.
Goumenou M, Spandidos DA, Tsatsakis A. [Editorial] Possibility of transmission through dogs being a contributing factor to the extreme COVID-19 outbreak in North Italy. Mol Med Rep. 2020;21:2293-2295.
Harapan H, Itoh N, Yufika A, Winnardi W, Keam S, Te H, et al. Corona disease 2019: A literature review. J Infect Public Health. 2020;13:667-673.
Daneshkhah A, Agrawal V, Eshein A, Subramanian H, Roy HK, Backman V. The possible role of vitamin D in suppressing cytokine storm and associated mortality in Covid-19 patients. MedRxiv; 2020.
Covid-19 patients from countries with higher mortality rates for the infection had lower levels of vitamin D compared to those. Neuroscience.RSS Feeds; 2020.
Huang I, Pranata R. Lymphopenia in severe coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): Systematic review and meta-analysis. J Intensive care. 2020;8:36.
Ruan Q, Yang K, Wang W, Jiang L, Song J. Clinical predictors of mortality due to COVID-19 based on an analysis of data of 150 patients from Wuhan, China. Intensive care Med. Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2020.
Infect Dis; (Study quotes by Tan et al.); 2020.
Available: www.medrxiv.org
Ramaiah P, Johargy A, Elsayed LA. Implication of vitamin D deficiency on autoimmune disorders. Int J Scie Res. 2017;6(1):1613-1616.
Zhou YF, Luo BA, Qin LL. The association between vitamin D deficiency and community-acquired pneumonia: A meta-analysis of observational studies. Med. 2019;98.
Available:https://journals.lww.com/md-journal/Fulltext/2019/09200/The_association_between_vitamin_D_deficiency_and.65.aspx
Dancer RC, Parekh D, Lax S. D’Souza V, Zheng S, Bassford CR, et al. Vitamin D deficiency contributes directly to the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Thorax. 2015;70:617-24.
Health 24. High levels of stress hormone cortisol linked to COVID-19 deaths. Infectious Disease; 2020.
Available:www.health24.com
Role of yoga in mitigating fear during COVID-19 pandemic. 2020;3.
Available:www.yogaiya.in
Retrieved August 4, 2020.
WHO warns off a drawn-out pandemic, ‘response fatigue’ The Hindu; 2020.
Available:https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/health/covid-19-who-warns-of-drawn-out-pandemic-response-fatigue/article32251952.ece
Zahi N, Gammoh, Rink L. Zinc in infection and inflammation. Nutrients. 2017;9:624.
Skalny AV, Rink L, Ajsuvakova OP, Aschner M, Gritsenko VA, Alekseenko SI. Zinc and respiratory tract infection: Perspectives for COVID-19 (Review). Int J Molecular Medicine. 2020;46:17-26.
Available:https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/ijmm.2020.4575
Haase H, Rink L. Zinc signals and immune function. Biofactors. 2014;40(1):27-40.
Prasad AS. Discovery of Zinc for human health and biomarkers of zinc deficiency: Molecular, genetic and nutritional aspects of major and trace minerals. Collins JF. Academic Press. Cambridge. 2017;241-260.
Adrenal fatique.org. 2020.
Retrieved on July, 2020.
Available:https://adrenalfatigue.org/nutrients-vital-to-tissue-health-and-injury-recovery/
Mateus J, Grifoni A, Tarke A, Sidney J, Ramirez SI, Dan JM et al. Selective and cross-reactive SARS- Cov-2 T cell epitopes in unexposed humans. Science; 2020.
Read SA, Obeid S, Ahlenstiel C, Ahlenstiel G. The ole of zinc in antiviral immunity. Adv Nutr. 2019;10:696-710.
Available:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6628855/
Mcphee Sw et al. Investigate oral Zinc as a prophylactic treatment for those at risk for COVID-19. American J Ophthalmic; 2020.
Razzaque MS. COVID-19 Pandemic: Can maintaining optimal zinc balance enhance host resistance? 2020. (Preprint)
Available:https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/202004.0006/v1
Walraven CV, Rodic S, McCudden C. Factors associated with zinc levels in hospitalized patients: An observational study using routinely collected data. J Trace Elem Med, Biol. 2020; 61.
Ishida T. Review on the role of Zn2+ ions in viral pathogenesis and the effect of zn2+ ions fro host cell-virus growth inhibition. Am J Biomed Sci& Res. 2019;2(1).
Available:https://www.heighpubs.org/jcavi/abstract.php?id=jcavi-aid1006
NIH Treatment Guidelines. Zinc supplementation and COVID-19; 2020.
Available:https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/adjunctive-therapy/zinc/
Xue J, Moyer A, Peng B, Wu J, Hannafon BN, Ding WQ. Choloroquine is a zinc ionophore. PLoS One. 2014;9(10).
Available:https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0109180
Bhardwaj SS, Alduwayhi S, Bhardwaj A. COVID-19 various treatment options and special considerations for dentistry. J Pharm Res Int. 2020;32(10):70-76.
Medical News Today. Too much Zinc; symptoms and causes; 2020.
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/326760#:~:text=Taking%
20in%20too%20much%20zinc,zinc%20can%20cause%20zinc%20toxicity.
Wessels I, Rolles B, Rink L. The potential impact of Zinc supplementation on COVID-19 pathogenesis. Front Immunol; July, 2020.
John Hopkins University and Medicine. Coronavirus resource center.
Available:https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html
Accessed on 5-07-2020
Science News.
Available:https://www.sciencenews.org/article/covid-19-coronavirus-sense-smell-brain-nerve-cells
Accessed July 2, 2020
Tayyib NA, Ramaiah P, Alsolami FJ, Alshmemri MS. Immunomodulatory effects of Zinc as a supportive strategy for COVID-19. J Pharm Res Int. 2020;32(13):14-22
Aman F, Masood S. How Nutrition can help to fight against COVID-19 Pandemic. Pak J Med Sci. 2020; 36(COVID19-S4):S121-S123.
Haug A, Brand-Miller JC, Christopherson OA, McArthur J, Truswell S. A food “lifeboat” food and nutrition considerations in the event of a pandemic or other catastrophe. Med J Aust. 2007;11-12:674-6
Jayawardena R, Sooriyaarachchi P, Chourdakis M, Jeewandara C, Ranasinghe P. Enhancing immunity in viral infections, with special emphasis on COVID-19: A review. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2020;14(4): 367-382.
Mc Call B. Medical Societies advice on vitamin D in the midst of COVID-19. Medscape Nurses; 2020.
Retrieved August 4, 2020.
Holick MF. The vitamin D deficiency pandemic approaches for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Rev Endocrine Metab Disord. 2017;18:153-165.
Pike JW, Meyer MB. Fundamentals of vitamin D hormone-regulated gene expression. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2014;144:5-11.
Hi CS, Ferrante A. The non-genomic actions of vitamin D. Nutrients. 2016;8(3):135. doi:10.3390/nu803013
Zhang L, Liu Y. Potential interventions for novel coronavirus in China: A systematic review. J Med Virol. 2020;92:479-490.
Sapkota M, Knoell DL. Essential Role of Zinc and Zinc Transporters in Myeloid Cell Function and Host Defense against Infection. J Immun Res. 2018;1-8.
Intermountain healthcare. Want a defense against COVID-19? Strengthen your immune system; 2020.
Combart AF, Pierre A, Maggini SA. Review of Micronutrients and the Immune System Working in Harmony to Reduce the Risk of Infection. 2020;12:236
Trovas G, Tournis S. Vitamin D and COVID-19. (Online). 2020;1-2.
Martineau AR, Jolliffe DA, Hooper RL, Greenberg L, Aloia JF, Bergman, et al. Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory infections: systemic review and meta-analysis of individual participant data. Jr BMJ. 2017;356:6583.
DiRosa M, Malaguarnera M, Nicoletti F, Malaguarnera L. Vitamin D3: A helpful immune-modulator. Immunology. 2011; 134:123-139.
Martineau AR, Forouhi NG. Vitamin D for COVID-19: a case to answer? The Lancet Diab Endocrinology. 2020;20(3):S2213-8587.
Lau FH, Majumder R, Torabi R. MedRxiv. Vitamin D deficiency is prevalent in severe COVID-19; 2020.
Biesalski HK. Vitamin D deficiency and co-morbidities in COVID-19 patients- A fatal relationship?. NFS Journal; 2020.
Das S. Zinc can play a pertinent role in mitigating Covid-19. ET Health World.com; 2020
Ali N. Role of vitamin D in preventing COVID-19 infection, progression, and severity (Online) J Infect Public Health. 2020;S1876-341(20):30531.
Huang C, Wang LX, Ren L, Zhao, Hu Y, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel Coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet; 2020.
Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan. China: a descriptive study. Lancet; 2020.
Goumenou M, Spandidos DA, Tsatsakis A. [Editorial] Possibility of transmission through dogs being a contributing factor to the extreme COVID-19 outbreak in North Italy. Mol Med Rep. 2020;21:2293-2295.
Harapan H, Itoh N, Yufika A, Winnardi W, Keam S, Te H, et al. Corona disease 2019: A literature review. J Infect Public Health. 2020;13:667-673.
Daneshkhah A, Agrawal V, Eshein A, Subramanian H, Roy HK, Backman V. The possible role of vitamin D in suppressing cytokine storm and associated mortality in Covid-19 patients. MedRxiv; 2020.
Covid-19 patients from countries with higher mortality rates for the infection had lower levels of vitamin D compared to those. Neuroscience.RSS Feeds; 2020.
Huang I, Pranata R. Lymphopenia in severe coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): Systematic review and meta-analysis. J Intensive care. 2020;8:36.
Ruan Q, Yang K, Wang W, Jiang L, Song J. Clinical predictors of mortality due to COVID-19 based on an analysis of data of 150 patients from Wuhan, China. Intensive care Med. Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2020.
Infect Dis; (Study quotes by Tan et al.); 2020.
Available: www.medrxiv.org
Ramaiah P, Johargy A, Elsayed LA. Implication of vitamin D deficiency on autoimmune disorders. Int J Scie Res. 2017;6(1):1613-1616.
Zhou YF, Luo BA, Qin LL. The association between vitamin D deficiency and community-acquired pneumonia: A meta-analysis of observational studies. Med. 2019;98.
Available:https://journals.lww.com/md-journal/Fulltext/2019/09200/The_association_between_vitamin_D_deficiency_and.65.aspx
Dancer RC, Parekh D, Lax S. D’Souza V, Zheng S, Bassford CR, et al. Vitamin D deficiency contributes directly to the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Thorax. 2015;70:617-24.
Health 24. High levels of stress hormone cortisol linked to COVID-19 deaths. Infectious Disease; 2020.
Available:www.health24.com
Role of yoga in mitigating fear during COVID-19 pandemic. 2020;3.
Available:www.yogaiya.in
Retrieved August 4, 2020.
WHO warns off a drawn-out pandemic, ‘response fatigue’ The Hindu; 2020.
Available:https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/health/covid-19-who-warns-of-drawn-out-pandemic-response-fatigue/article32251952.ece
Zahi N, Gammoh, Rink L. Zinc in infection and inflammation. Nutrients. 2017;9:624.
Skalny AV, Rink L, Ajsuvakova OP, Aschner M, Gritsenko VA, Alekseenko SI. Zinc and respiratory tract infection: Perspectives for COVID-19 (Review). Int J Molecular Medicine. 2020;46:17-26.
Available:https://www.spandidos-publications.com/10.3892/ijmm.2020.4575
Haase H, Rink L. Zinc signals and immune function. Biofactors. 2014;40(1):27-40.
Prasad AS. Discovery of Zinc for human health and biomarkers of zinc deficiency: Molecular, genetic and nutritional aspects of major and trace minerals. Collins JF. Academic Press. Cambridge. 2017;241-260.
Adrenal fatique.org. 2020.
Retrieved on July, 2020.
Available:https://adrenalfatigue.org/nutrients-vital-to-tissue-health-and-injury-recovery/
Mateus J, Grifoni A, Tarke A, Sidney J, Ramirez SI, Dan JM et al. Selective and cross-reactive SARS- Cov-2 T cell epitopes in unexposed humans. Science; 2020.
Read SA, Obeid S, Ahlenstiel C, Ahlenstiel G. The ole of zinc in antiviral immunity. Adv Nutr. 2019;10:696-710.
Available:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6628855/
Mcphee Sw et al. Investigate oral Zinc as a prophylactic treatment for those at risk for COVID-19. American J Ophthalmic; 2020.
Razzaque MS. COVID-19 Pandemic: Can maintaining optimal zinc balance enhance host resistance? 2020. (Preprint)
Available:https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/202004.0006/v1
Walraven CV, Rodic S, McCudden C. Factors associated with zinc levels in hospitalized patients: An observational study using routinely collected data. J Trace Elem Med, Biol. 2020; 61.
Ishida T. Review on the role of Zn2+ ions in viral pathogenesis and the effect of zn2+ ions fro host cell-virus growth inhibition. Am J Biomed Sci& Res. 2019;2(1).
Available:https://www.heighpubs.org/jcavi/abstract.php?id=jcavi-aid1006
NIH Treatment Guidelines. Zinc supplementation and COVID-19; 2020.
Available:https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/adjunctive-therapy/zinc/
Xue J, Moyer A, Peng B, Wu J, Hannafon BN, Ding WQ. Choloroquine is a zinc ionophore. PLoS One. 2014;9(10).
Available:https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0109180
Bhardwaj SS, Alduwayhi S, Bhardwaj A. COVID-19 various treatment options and special considerations for dentistry. J Pharm Res Int. 2020;32(10):70-76.
Medical News Today. Too much Zinc; symptoms and causes; 2020.
https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/326760#:~:text=Taking%
20in%20too%20much%20zinc,zinc%20can%20cause%20zinc%20toxicity.
Wessels I, Rolles B, Rink L. The potential impact of Zinc supplementation on COVID-19 pathogenesis. Front Immunol; July, 2020.
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