An Overview on Common Organic Solvents and Their Toxicity
Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International,
Page 1-18
DOI:
10.9734/jpri/2019/v28i330203
Abstract
Organic solvents are known as carbon-based solvents and their general property is primarily based on their volatility, boiling point, the molecular weight and color. Having enormous hazards associated with the organic solvents, they are used for millions of purposes which alert us to think more on its toxicity points. Almost all of the solvents are hazardous to health, if swallowed or inhaled more than the limit quantity and on contact to the skin most of them cause irritation. Some of the common solvents are acetone, ethyl acetate, hexane, heptane, dichloromethane, methanol, ethanol, tetrahydrofuran, acetonitrile, dimethylformamide, toluene, dimethylsulfoxide etc. Researchers, scientists, workers in the chemical industry and research institutes use these solvents on regular basis leading them to be affected in major aspects. But also, the nearby persons are affected by the contamination to the soil, water, air etc. If constantly exposed with solvents, it will badly affect the function of CNS and other body parts. The level of impact, sign and symptoms will depend on concentration, time, duration, frequency and nature of solvents, leading to common effects like headache, dizziness, tiredness, blurred vision, behavioral changes, unconsciousness, and even(Zimmermann, Mayer et al. 1985) death. To overcome it, the green chemistry concept is growing rapidly, and the solvent selection guide is in practice in many big company and research institute. A researcher or chemical worker is the primary person who works with solvents and they need to consider throughout these things while performing their activities for their own good health and for the sake of the world. The purpose of this review is to provide needed basic knowledge about common organic solvents and their potential toxicities which will alert researchers to think twice and always think for their health as well as for the environment via safe and green practice.
Keywords:
- Organic solvents
- toxicity
- acetone
- toluene
- n-hexane
- green chemistry
How to Cite
Joshi, D. and Adhikari, N. (2019) “An Overview on Common Organic Solvents and Their Toxicity”, Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International, 28(3), pp. 1-18. doi: 10.9734/jpri/2019/v28i330203.
References
Smallwood I. Handbook of organic solvent properties. Butterworth-Heinemann; 2012.
Tanaka K, Toda F. Solvent-free organic synthesis. Chemical Reviews. 2000;100(3): 1025-1074.
Varma RS. Solvent-free accelerated organic syntheses using microwaves. Pure and Applied Chemistry. 2001;73(1):193-198.
Spencer PS, Schaumburg HH. Organic solvent neurotoxicity: Facts and research needs. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 1985;53-60.
Takeuchi Y, et al. A comparative study of the toxicity of n-pentane, n-hexane, and n-heptane to the peripheral nerve of the rat. Clinical Toxicology. 1981;18(12):1395-1402.
Baker EL. Organic solvent neurotoxicity. Annual review of public health. 1988;9(1): 223-232.
Dumas O, et al. Respiratory effects of trichloroethylene. Respiratory Medicine. 2018;134:47-53.
Bowen SE, et al. Abstinence following toluene exposure increases anxiety-like behavior in mice. Neurotoxicology and Teratology. 2018;65:42-50.
Fink M. The seizure, not electricity, is essential in convulsive therapy: The flurothyl experience. The Journal of ECT. 2014;30(2):91-93.
Cruz SL, Gauthereau-Torres MY, Rivera-García MT. Structure-activity relationship for the anticonvulsant effects of organic solvents. Neurotoxicology. 2016;57:121-127.
Marchetti P, et al. Molecular separation with organic solvent nanofiltration: A critical review. Chemical Reviews. 2014;114(21): 10735-10806.
Capello C, Fischer U, Hungerbühler K. What is a green solvent? A comprehensive framework for the environmental assess-ment of solvents. Green Chemistry. 2007; 9(9):927-934.
Tobiszewski M, et al. A solvent selection guide based on chemometrics and multi-criteria decision analysis. Green Chemistry. 2015;17(10):4773-4785.
Alfonsi K, et al. Green chemistry tools to influence a medicinal chemistry and research chemistry based organisation. Green Chemistry. 2008;10(1):31-36.
Bruckner J, Warren D. Casarett and Doull's toxicology: The basic science of poisons; 2001.
Firestone JA, Gospe Jr SM. Organic solvents. in Clinical Neurotoxicology. Elsevier. 2009;401-414.
Jingzhi G, Approaching MSDS [J]. Sulphuric Acid Industry. 2009;4:005.
Keith LH, Walters DB. Compendium of safety data sheets for research and industrial chemicals. Part II Dearfield Beach: VCH Publishers; 1985.
Eastlake A, et al. A critical evaluation of material safety data sheets (MSDSs) for engineered nanomaterials. Journal of Chemical Health and Safety. 2012;19(5): 1-8.
Phillips CC, et al. The efficacy of material safety data sheets and worker acceptability. Journal of Safety Research. 1999;30(2): 113-122.
Tang SL, Smith RL, Poliakoff M. Principles of green chemistry: Productively. Green Chemistry. 2005;7(11):761-762.
Oliveira A, et al. Organic solvent exposure and contrast sensitivity: Comparing men and women. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research. 2018;51(3).
DeCaprio A. n-Hexane neurotoxicity: A mechanism involving pyrrole adduct formation in axonal cytoskeletal protein. Neurotoxicology. 1987;8(1):199-210.
Takeuchi Y, et al. A comparative study on the neurotoxicity of n-pentane, n-hexane, and n-heptane in the rat. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 1980;37(3):241-247.
King MD. Neurological sequelae of toluene abuse. Human Toxicology. 1982;1(3):281-287.
Vitale CM, Gutovitz S. Aromatic (Benzene, Toluene) Toxicity; 2018.
Dharmarajan L, Ammar H. Expanding the differential: Toluene-induced toxicity. BMJ Case Reports. 2017;220986.
Dange AD, Masurekar VB. Toluene toxicity: Effects of sublethal levels on enzyme activities in seawater adapted tilapia (Sarotherodon mossambicus Peters). Journal of Biosciences. 1981;3(2):129-134.
Dickson RP, Luks AM. Toluene toxicity as a cause of elevated anion gap metabolic acidosis. Respiratory Care. 2009;54(8): 1115-1117.
Yoon JH, et al. Acute high-level toluene exposure decreases hippocampal neuro-genesis in rats. Toxicology and Industrial Health. 2016;32(11):1910-1920.
Snyder CA. Experimental benzene toxicity, in Benzene carcinogenicity. CRC Press. 2017;29-38.
Aksoy M. Revival: Benzene carcinogenicity 2017: CRC Press; 1988.
Chen Y, et al. MiR-133a regarded as a potential biomarker for benzene toxicity through targeting Caspase-9 to inhibit apoptosis induced by benzene metabolite (1, 4-Benzoquinone). Science of the Total Environment. 2016;571:883-891.
Singh A, Rana S. Ovarian toxicity of benzene in rat. Journal of Ecophysiology and Occupational Health. 2017;10(1-2):27-33.
Graciani FS, Ferreira GLBV. Occupational health in Brazil and regulation and control of benzene toxicity. Revista Cubana de Salud Pública. 2014;40(3):406-411.
Branchflower RV, et al. Nephrotoxicity of chloroform: Metabolism to phosgene by the mouse kidney. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 1984;72(1):159-168.
Yamamoto S, et al. Carcinogenicity and chronic toxicity in rats and mice exposed to chloroform by inhalation. Journal of Occupational Health. 2002;44(5):283-293.
Brady JF, et al. Induction of cytochromes P450IIE1 and P450IIB1 by secondary ketones and the role of P450IIE1 in chloroform metabolism. Toxicology and applied pharmacology. 1989;100(2):342-349.
Testai E, et al. The role of different cyto-chrome P450 isoforms in in vitro chloro-form metabolism. Journal of biochemical toxicology. 1996;11(6):305-312.
Ilett KF, et al. Chloroform toxicity in mice: Correlation of renal and hepatic necrosis with covalent binding of metabolites to tissue macromolecules. Experimental and Molecular Pathology. 1973;19(2):215-229.
Testai E, Vittozzi L. Different pathways of chloroform metabolism, in disease, metabolism and reproduction in the toxic response to drugs and other chemicals. Springer. 1984;278-281.
Gemma S, Vittozzi L, Testai E. Metabolism of chloroform in the human liver and identification of the competent P450s. Drug Metabolism and Disposition. 2003;31(3): 266-274.
Burek J, et al. Methylene chloride: A two-year inhalation toxicity and oncogenicity study in rats and hamsters. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology. 1984;4(1):30-47.
Snyder RW, Mishel HS, Christensen GC. Pulmonary toxicity following exposure to methylene chloride and its combustion product, phosgene. Chest. 1992;101(3): 860-861.
Rioux JP, Myers RA. Methylene chloride poisoning: A paradigmatic review. The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 1988;6(3): 227-238.
Horowitz BZ. Carboxyhemoglobinemia caused by inhalation of methylene chloride. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 1986;4(1):48-51.
Barrowcliff D, Knell A. Cerebral damage due to endogenous chronic carbon mon-oxide poisoning caused by exposure to methylene chloride. Occupational Medicine. 1979;29(1):12-14.
Leikin JB, et al. Methylene chloride: Report of five exposures and two deaths. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 1990;8(6):534-537.
Foster J, et al. Methylene chloride: An inhalation study to investigate toxicity in the mouse lung using morphological, biochemical and Clara cell culture techniques. Toxicology. 1994;91(3):221-234.
Ashurst JV, Nappe TM. Toxicity, methanol; 2018.
Ghosh P, et al. Mathematical Modeling for the prevention of methanol poisoning through ethanol by impulsive way. Differential Equations and Dynamical Systems. 2018;1-18.
Clay KL, Murphy R, Watrins WD. Experimental methanol toxicity in the primate: Analysis of metabolic acidosis. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 1975;34(1):49-61.
Eells J, et al. Development and characteri-zation of a rodent model of methanol-induced retinal and optic nerve toxicity. Neurotoxicology. 2000;21(3):321-330.
Medinsky MA, Dorman DC. Recent developments in methanol toxicity. Toxico-logy Letters. 1995;82:707-711.
Pradhan M, et al. Histological changes in the Retina in methanol toxicity-A case report. Anil Aggrawal's Internet Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology. 2014; 15(2).
Tellese Souza FG, et al. Optic neuropathy toxic after methanol inhalation. Revista Brasileira de Oftalmologia. 2018; 77(1).
Tephly TR. The toxicity of methanol. Life Sciences. 1991;48(11):1031-1041.
Rohani M, Munhoz RP, Haeri G. Abnormal movements induced by methanol toxicity. Postgraduate Medical Journal. 2017; 134947.
Souza AO, et al. Evaluation of Poly-brominated diphenyl ether toxicity on HepG2 cells–hexabrominated congener (BDE‐154) Is less toxic than tetrabro-minated congener (BDE‐47). Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology. 2016; 119(5):485-497.
Salimi A, et al. Toxicity of methyl tertiary-butyl ether on human blood lymphocytes. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2016;23(9):8556-8564.
Khalil A, et al. Perinatal exposure to 2, 2′, 4′ 4′− Tetrabromodiphenyl ether induces testicular toxicity in adult rats. Toxicology. 2017;389:21-30.
Dunnick J, et al. Carcinogenic activity of pentabrominated diphenyl ether mixture (DE-71) in rats and mice. Toxicology Reports. 2018;5:615-624.
Dannan GA. Tetrahydrofuran. Hamilton & Hardy's Industrial Toxicology. 2015;719-726.
Wang Z, et al. Potential safety hazards associated with using acetonitrile and a strong aqueous base. Organic Process Research & Development. 2017;21(10): 1501-1508.
Freeman JJ, Hayes EP. Microsomal metabolism of acetonitrile to cyanide: Effects of acetone and other compounds. Biochemical Pharmacology. 1988;37(6): 1153-1159.
Pozzani U, et al. An investigation of the mammalian toxicity of acetonitrile. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 1959;1(12):634-642.
Freeman JJ, Hayes EP. Acetone potentia-tion of acute acetonitrile toxicity in rats. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A Current Issues. 1985;15(5): 609-621.
Ahmed AE, et al. Studies on the mechanism of acetonitrile toxicity I: Whole body autoradiographic distribution and macromolecular interaction of 2–14C‐acetonitrile in mice. Pharmacology & Toxicology. 1992;70(5):322-330.
Micromedex T, Poisindex; 2006.
Toxicological Review of Acetonitrile. EPA; 1999.
Joshi DR, Adhikari N. Common acids and bases for organic synthesis; 2019.
Jones G, Stanforth SP. The V ilsmeier reaction of fully conjugated carbocycles and heterocycles. Organic Reactions. 2004; 49:1-330.
Scailteur V, Lauwerys R. Dimethylforma-mide (DMF) hepatotoxicity. Toxicology. 1987;43(3):231-238.
Kilo S, Göen T, Drexler H. Cross-sectional study on N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF); effects on liver and alcohol intolerance. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2016;89(8):1309-1320.
Hurtt M, et al. 13-week inhalation toxicity study of dimethylformamide (DMF) in cynomolgus monkeys. Toxicological Sciences. 1992;18(4):596-601.
Tanaka KI. Toxicity of dimethylformamide (DMF) to the young female rat. Inter-nationales Archiv für Arbeitsmedizin. 1971; 28(2):95-105.
Clayton Jr J, et al. The inhalation toxicity of dimethylformamide (DMF). American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal. 1963;24(2):144-154.
Sifniades S, Levy AB, Bahl H. Acetone. ullmann's encyclopedia of industrial chemistry; 2011.
Hewitt WR, Brown EM, Plaa GL. Acetone-induced potentiation of trihalomethane toxicity in male rats. Toxicology Letters. 1983;16(3-4):285-296.
Mackison FWS, Partridge RS, Jr. LJ eds. NIOSH/OSHA – Occupational health guidelines for chemical hazards. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 81–123. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
McDermott C, O’Donoghue MH, Heffron JJ. n-Hexane toxicity in Jurkat T-cells is mediated by reactive oxygen species. Archives of Toxicology. 2008;82(3):165-171.
Jin L, et al. The effect of n-hexane on the gonad toxicity of female mice. Biomedical and Environmental Sciences. 2012;25(2): 189-196.
Wang S, et al. Diallyl trisulfide attenuated n-hexane induced neurotoxicity in rats by modulating P450 enzymes. Chemico-biological Interactions. 2017;265:1-7.
Li H, et al. Gestational N-hexane inhalation alters the expression of genes related to ovarian hormone production and DNA methylation states in adult female F1 rat offspring. Toxicology Letters. 2015;239(3): 141-151.
Neghab M, Soleimani E, Khamoushian K. Electrophysiological studies of shoemakers exposed to sub-TLV levels of n-hexane. Journal of Occupational Health. 2012;12-0029-FS.
Tormoehlen L, Tekulve K, Nañagas K. Hydrocarbon toxicity: A review. Clinical Toxicology. 2014;52(5):479-489.
Mandal PK. Dioxin: A review of its environ-mental effects and its aryl hydrocarbon receptor biology. Journal of Comparative Physiology B. 2005;175(4):221-230.
Turner NR, Renegar DA. Petroleum hydrocarbon toxicity to corals: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2017;119(2):1-16.
Alden CL. A review of unique male rat hydrocarbon nephropathy. Toxicologic Pathology. 1986;14(1):109-111.
Gasiewicz TA, Singh KP, Casado FL. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor has an important role in the regulation of hematopoiesis: Implications for benzene-induced hemato-poietic toxicity. Chemico-biological interac-tions. 2010;184(1-2):246-251.
Solomon LM, Fahrner L, West DP. Gamma benzene hexachloride toxicity: A review. Archives of Dermatology. 1977;113(3):353-357.
Marlowe JL, Puga A. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor, cell cycle regulation, toxicity, and tumorigenesis. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry. 2005;96(6):1174-1184.
Heipieper HJ, et al. Mechanisms of resistance of whole cells to toxic organic solvents. Trends in Biotechnology. 1994; 12(10):409-415.
Sardessai Y, Bhosle S. Tolerance of bacteria to organic solvents. Research in Microbiology. 2002;153(5):263-268.
Weber FJ, de Bont JA. Adaptation mechanisms of microorganisms to the toxic effects of organic solvents on membranes. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Reviews on Biomembranes. 1996;1286(3):225-245.
White DG, et al. Role of the acrAB locus in organic solvent tolerance mediated by expression of marA, soxS, or robA in Escherichia coli. Journal of Bacteriology. 1997;179(19):6122-6126.
Isken S, de Bont JA. Bacteria tolerant to organic solvents. Extremophiles. 1998;2(3): 229-238.
Torres S, Pandey A, Castro GR. Organic solvent adaptation of Gram positive bacteria: Applications and biotechnological potentials. Biotechnology Advances. 2011; 29(4):442-452.
Segura A, et al. Solvent tolerance in gram-negative bacteria. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 2012;23(3):415-421.
Matsumoto M, Mochiduki K, Kondo K. Toxicity of ionic liquids and organic solvents to lactic acid-producing bacteria. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 2004;98(5):344-347.
León R. et al. Organic solvent toxicity in photoautotrophic unicellular micro-organisms. Enzyme and microbial techno-logy. 2001;29(2-3):173-180.
Bassetti L, Tramper J. Organic solvent toxicity in Morinda citrifolia cell suspensions. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 1994;16(8):642-648.
Barahona-Gomariz M, Sanz-Barrera F, Sánchez-Fortún S. Acute toxicity of organic solvents on Artemia salina. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 1994;52(5):766-771.
Sato A, Nakajima T. Pharmacokinetics of organic solvent vapors in relation to their toxicity. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 1987;81-93.
Wypych G. Handbook of solvents. ChemTec Publishing; 2001.
Donoghue AM, Dryson EW, Wynn-Williams G. Contrast sensitivity in organic-solvent-induced chronic toxic encepha-lopathy. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 1995;37(12): 1357-1363.
Mottu F, et al. Organic solvents for pharmaceutical parenterals and embolic liquids: A review of toxicity data. PDA Journal of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology. 2000;54(6):456-469.
Gamberale F. Use of behavioral performance tests in the assessment of solvent toxicity. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 1985;65-74.
Brautbar N, Williams II J. Industrial solvents and liver toxicity: Risk assess-ment, risk factors and mechanisms. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 2002;205(6):479-491.
Yabannavar V, Wang D. Strategies for reducing solvent toxicity in extractive fermentations. Biotechnology and Bio-engineering. 1991;37(8):716-722.
Schenker MB, Jacobs J. Respiratory effects of organic solvent exposure. Tubercle and Lung Disease. 1996;77(1):4-18.
Dryson E, Ogden J. Organic solvent induced chronic toxic encephalopathy: Extent of recovery, and associated factors, following cessation of exposure. Neuro-toxicology. 2000;21(5):659-665.
Andrade Z, Carlos K, Alves LM. Environmentally benign solvents in organic synthesis: Current topics. Current Organic Chemistry. 2005;9(2):195-218.
Horváth IT. Solvents from nature. Green Chemistry. 2008;10(10):1024-1028.
Sheldon RA. Green solvents for sustaina-ble organic synthesis: State of the art. Green Chemistry. 2005;7(5):267-278.
DeSimone JM. Practical approaches to green solvents. Science. 2002;297(5582): 799-803.
Blanchard LA, et al. Green processing using ionic liquids and CO2. Nature. 1999; 399(6731):28.
Jessop PG. Searching for green solvents. Green Chemistry. 2011;3(6):1391-1398.
Simon MO, Li CJ. Green chemistry oriented organic synthesis in water. Chemical Society Reviews. 2012;41(4): 1415-1427.
Chanda A, Fokin VV. Organic synthesis “on water”. Chemical Reviews. 2009; 109(2):725-748.
Grieco PA. Organic synthesis in water. Springer Science & Business Media; 2012.
Gawande MB, et al. Benign by design: Catalyst-free in-water, on-water green chemical methodologies in organic synthesis. Chemical Society Reviews. 2013;42(12):5522-5551.
Seyler C, et al. Waste-solvent management as an element of green chemistry: A comprehensive study on the Swiss chemical industry. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 2006; 45(22):7700-7709.
Tanaka K, Toda F. Solvent-free organic synthesis. Chemical Reviews. 2000;100(3): 1025-1074.
Varma RS. Solvent-free accelerated organic syntheses using microwaves. Pure and Applied Chemistry. 2001;73(1):193-198.
Spencer PS, Schaumburg HH. Organic solvent neurotoxicity: Facts and research needs. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 1985;53-60.
Takeuchi Y, et al. A comparative study of the toxicity of n-pentane, n-hexane, and n-heptane to the peripheral nerve of the rat. Clinical Toxicology. 1981;18(12):1395-1402.
Baker EL. Organic solvent neurotoxicity. Annual review of public health. 1988;9(1): 223-232.
Dumas O, et al. Respiratory effects of trichloroethylene. Respiratory Medicine. 2018;134:47-53.
Bowen SE, et al. Abstinence following toluene exposure increases anxiety-like behavior in mice. Neurotoxicology and Teratology. 2018;65:42-50.
Fink M. The seizure, not electricity, is essential in convulsive therapy: The flurothyl experience. The Journal of ECT. 2014;30(2):91-93.
Cruz SL, Gauthereau-Torres MY, Rivera-García MT. Structure-activity relationship for the anticonvulsant effects of organic solvents. Neurotoxicology. 2016;57:121-127.
Marchetti P, et al. Molecular separation with organic solvent nanofiltration: A critical review. Chemical Reviews. 2014;114(21): 10735-10806.
Capello C, Fischer U, Hungerbühler K. What is a green solvent? A comprehensive framework for the environmental assess-ment of solvents. Green Chemistry. 2007; 9(9):927-934.
Tobiszewski M, et al. A solvent selection guide based on chemometrics and multi-criteria decision analysis. Green Chemistry. 2015;17(10):4773-4785.
Alfonsi K, et al. Green chemistry tools to influence a medicinal chemistry and research chemistry based organisation. Green Chemistry. 2008;10(1):31-36.
Bruckner J, Warren D. Casarett and Doull's toxicology: The basic science of poisons; 2001.
Firestone JA, Gospe Jr SM. Organic solvents. in Clinical Neurotoxicology. Elsevier. 2009;401-414.
Jingzhi G, Approaching MSDS [J]. Sulphuric Acid Industry. 2009;4:005.
Keith LH, Walters DB. Compendium of safety data sheets for research and industrial chemicals. Part II Dearfield Beach: VCH Publishers; 1985.
Eastlake A, et al. A critical evaluation of material safety data sheets (MSDSs) for engineered nanomaterials. Journal of Chemical Health and Safety. 2012;19(5): 1-8.
Phillips CC, et al. The efficacy of material safety data sheets and worker acceptability. Journal of Safety Research. 1999;30(2): 113-122.
Tang SL, Smith RL, Poliakoff M. Principles of green chemistry: Productively. Green Chemistry. 2005;7(11):761-762.
Oliveira A, et al. Organic solvent exposure and contrast sensitivity: Comparing men and women. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research. 2018;51(3).
DeCaprio A. n-Hexane neurotoxicity: A mechanism involving pyrrole adduct formation in axonal cytoskeletal protein. Neurotoxicology. 1987;8(1):199-210.
Takeuchi Y, et al. A comparative study on the neurotoxicity of n-pentane, n-hexane, and n-heptane in the rat. Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 1980;37(3):241-247.
King MD. Neurological sequelae of toluene abuse. Human Toxicology. 1982;1(3):281-287.
Vitale CM, Gutovitz S. Aromatic (Benzene, Toluene) Toxicity; 2018.
Dharmarajan L, Ammar H. Expanding the differential: Toluene-induced toxicity. BMJ Case Reports. 2017;220986.
Dange AD, Masurekar VB. Toluene toxicity: Effects of sublethal levels on enzyme activities in seawater adapted tilapia (Sarotherodon mossambicus Peters). Journal of Biosciences. 1981;3(2):129-134.
Dickson RP, Luks AM. Toluene toxicity as a cause of elevated anion gap metabolic acidosis. Respiratory Care. 2009;54(8): 1115-1117.
Yoon JH, et al. Acute high-level toluene exposure decreases hippocampal neuro-genesis in rats. Toxicology and Industrial Health. 2016;32(11):1910-1920.
Snyder CA. Experimental benzene toxicity, in Benzene carcinogenicity. CRC Press. 2017;29-38.
Aksoy M. Revival: Benzene carcinogenicity 2017: CRC Press; 1988.
Chen Y, et al. MiR-133a regarded as a potential biomarker for benzene toxicity through targeting Caspase-9 to inhibit apoptosis induced by benzene metabolite (1, 4-Benzoquinone). Science of the Total Environment. 2016;571:883-891.
Singh A, Rana S. Ovarian toxicity of benzene in rat. Journal of Ecophysiology and Occupational Health. 2017;10(1-2):27-33.
Graciani FS, Ferreira GLBV. Occupational health in Brazil and regulation and control of benzene toxicity. Revista Cubana de Salud Pública. 2014;40(3):406-411.
Branchflower RV, et al. Nephrotoxicity of chloroform: Metabolism to phosgene by the mouse kidney. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 1984;72(1):159-168.
Yamamoto S, et al. Carcinogenicity and chronic toxicity in rats and mice exposed to chloroform by inhalation. Journal of Occupational Health. 2002;44(5):283-293.
Brady JF, et al. Induction of cytochromes P450IIE1 and P450IIB1 by secondary ketones and the role of P450IIE1 in chloroform metabolism. Toxicology and applied pharmacology. 1989;100(2):342-349.
Testai E, et al. The role of different cyto-chrome P450 isoforms in in vitro chloro-form metabolism. Journal of biochemical toxicology. 1996;11(6):305-312.
Ilett KF, et al. Chloroform toxicity in mice: Correlation of renal and hepatic necrosis with covalent binding of metabolites to tissue macromolecules. Experimental and Molecular Pathology. 1973;19(2):215-229.
Testai E, Vittozzi L. Different pathways of chloroform metabolism, in disease, metabolism and reproduction in the toxic response to drugs and other chemicals. Springer. 1984;278-281.
Gemma S, Vittozzi L, Testai E. Metabolism of chloroform in the human liver and identification of the competent P450s. Drug Metabolism and Disposition. 2003;31(3): 266-274.
Burek J, et al. Methylene chloride: A two-year inhalation toxicity and oncogenicity study in rats and hamsters. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology. 1984;4(1):30-47.
Snyder RW, Mishel HS, Christensen GC. Pulmonary toxicity following exposure to methylene chloride and its combustion product, phosgene. Chest. 1992;101(3): 860-861.
Rioux JP, Myers RA. Methylene chloride poisoning: A paradigmatic review. The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 1988;6(3): 227-238.
Horowitz BZ. Carboxyhemoglobinemia caused by inhalation of methylene chloride. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 1986;4(1):48-51.
Barrowcliff D, Knell A. Cerebral damage due to endogenous chronic carbon mon-oxide poisoning caused by exposure to methylene chloride. Occupational Medicine. 1979;29(1):12-14.
Leikin JB, et al. Methylene chloride: Report of five exposures and two deaths. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 1990;8(6):534-537.
Foster J, et al. Methylene chloride: An inhalation study to investigate toxicity in the mouse lung using morphological, biochemical and Clara cell culture techniques. Toxicology. 1994;91(3):221-234.
Ashurst JV, Nappe TM. Toxicity, methanol; 2018.
Ghosh P, et al. Mathematical Modeling for the prevention of methanol poisoning through ethanol by impulsive way. Differential Equations and Dynamical Systems. 2018;1-18.
Clay KL, Murphy R, Watrins WD. Experimental methanol toxicity in the primate: Analysis of metabolic acidosis. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 1975;34(1):49-61.
Eells J, et al. Development and characteri-zation of a rodent model of methanol-induced retinal and optic nerve toxicity. Neurotoxicology. 2000;21(3):321-330.
Medinsky MA, Dorman DC. Recent developments in methanol toxicity. Toxico-logy Letters. 1995;82:707-711.
Pradhan M, et al. Histological changes in the Retina in methanol toxicity-A case report. Anil Aggrawal's Internet Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology. 2014; 15(2).
Tellese Souza FG, et al. Optic neuropathy toxic after methanol inhalation. Revista Brasileira de Oftalmologia. 2018; 77(1).
Tephly TR. The toxicity of methanol. Life Sciences. 1991;48(11):1031-1041.
Rohani M, Munhoz RP, Haeri G. Abnormal movements induced by methanol toxicity. Postgraduate Medical Journal. 2017; 134947.
Souza AO, et al. Evaluation of Poly-brominated diphenyl ether toxicity on HepG2 cells–hexabrominated congener (BDE‐154) Is less toxic than tetrabro-minated congener (BDE‐47). Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology. 2016; 119(5):485-497.
Salimi A, et al. Toxicity of methyl tertiary-butyl ether on human blood lymphocytes. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2016;23(9):8556-8564.
Khalil A, et al. Perinatal exposure to 2, 2′, 4′ 4′− Tetrabromodiphenyl ether induces testicular toxicity in adult rats. Toxicology. 2017;389:21-30.
Dunnick J, et al. Carcinogenic activity of pentabrominated diphenyl ether mixture (DE-71) in rats and mice. Toxicology Reports. 2018;5:615-624.
Dannan GA. Tetrahydrofuran. Hamilton & Hardy's Industrial Toxicology. 2015;719-726.
Wang Z, et al. Potential safety hazards associated with using acetonitrile and a strong aqueous base. Organic Process Research & Development. 2017;21(10): 1501-1508.
Freeman JJ, Hayes EP. Microsomal metabolism of acetonitrile to cyanide: Effects of acetone and other compounds. Biochemical Pharmacology. 1988;37(6): 1153-1159.
Pozzani U, et al. An investigation of the mammalian toxicity of acetonitrile. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 1959;1(12):634-642.
Freeman JJ, Hayes EP. Acetone potentia-tion of acute acetonitrile toxicity in rats. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A Current Issues. 1985;15(5): 609-621.
Ahmed AE, et al. Studies on the mechanism of acetonitrile toxicity I: Whole body autoradiographic distribution and macromolecular interaction of 2–14C‐acetonitrile in mice. Pharmacology & Toxicology. 1992;70(5):322-330.
Micromedex T, Poisindex; 2006.
Toxicological Review of Acetonitrile. EPA; 1999.
Joshi DR, Adhikari N. Common acids and bases for organic synthesis; 2019.
Jones G, Stanforth SP. The V ilsmeier reaction of fully conjugated carbocycles and heterocycles. Organic Reactions. 2004; 49:1-330.
Scailteur V, Lauwerys R. Dimethylforma-mide (DMF) hepatotoxicity. Toxicology. 1987;43(3):231-238.
Kilo S, Göen T, Drexler H. Cross-sectional study on N, N-dimethylformamide (DMF); effects on liver and alcohol intolerance. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2016;89(8):1309-1320.
Hurtt M, et al. 13-week inhalation toxicity study of dimethylformamide (DMF) in cynomolgus monkeys. Toxicological Sciences. 1992;18(4):596-601.
Tanaka KI. Toxicity of dimethylformamide (DMF) to the young female rat. Inter-nationales Archiv für Arbeitsmedizin. 1971; 28(2):95-105.
Clayton Jr J, et al. The inhalation toxicity of dimethylformamide (DMF). American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal. 1963;24(2):144-154.
Sifniades S, Levy AB, Bahl H. Acetone. ullmann's encyclopedia of industrial chemistry; 2011.
Hewitt WR, Brown EM, Plaa GL. Acetone-induced potentiation of trihalomethane toxicity in male rats. Toxicology Letters. 1983;16(3-4):285-296.
Mackison FWS, Partridge RS, Jr. LJ eds. NIOSH/OSHA – Occupational health guidelines for chemical hazards. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 81–123. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
McDermott C, O’Donoghue MH, Heffron JJ. n-Hexane toxicity in Jurkat T-cells is mediated by reactive oxygen species. Archives of Toxicology. 2008;82(3):165-171.
Jin L, et al. The effect of n-hexane on the gonad toxicity of female mice. Biomedical and Environmental Sciences. 2012;25(2): 189-196.
Wang S, et al. Diallyl trisulfide attenuated n-hexane induced neurotoxicity in rats by modulating P450 enzymes. Chemico-biological Interactions. 2017;265:1-7.
Li H, et al. Gestational N-hexane inhalation alters the expression of genes related to ovarian hormone production and DNA methylation states in adult female F1 rat offspring. Toxicology Letters. 2015;239(3): 141-151.
Neghab M, Soleimani E, Khamoushian K. Electrophysiological studies of shoemakers exposed to sub-TLV levels of n-hexane. Journal of Occupational Health. 2012;12-0029-FS.
Tormoehlen L, Tekulve K, Nañagas K. Hydrocarbon toxicity: A review. Clinical Toxicology. 2014;52(5):479-489.
Mandal PK. Dioxin: A review of its environ-mental effects and its aryl hydrocarbon receptor biology. Journal of Comparative Physiology B. 2005;175(4):221-230.
Turner NR, Renegar DA. Petroleum hydrocarbon toxicity to corals: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2017;119(2):1-16.
Alden CL. A review of unique male rat hydrocarbon nephropathy. Toxicologic Pathology. 1986;14(1):109-111.
Gasiewicz TA, Singh KP, Casado FL. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor has an important role in the regulation of hematopoiesis: Implications for benzene-induced hemato-poietic toxicity. Chemico-biological interac-tions. 2010;184(1-2):246-251.
Solomon LM, Fahrner L, West DP. Gamma benzene hexachloride toxicity: A review. Archives of Dermatology. 1977;113(3):353-357.
Marlowe JL, Puga A. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor, cell cycle regulation, toxicity, and tumorigenesis. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry. 2005;96(6):1174-1184.
Heipieper HJ, et al. Mechanisms of resistance of whole cells to toxic organic solvents. Trends in Biotechnology. 1994; 12(10):409-415.
Sardessai Y, Bhosle S. Tolerance of bacteria to organic solvents. Research in Microbiology. 2002;153(5):263-268.
Weber FJ, de Bont JA. Adaptation mechanisms of microorganisms to the toxic effects of organic solvents on membranes. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)-Reviews on Biomembranes. 1996;1286(3):225-245.
White DG, et al. Role of the acrAB locus in organic solvent tolerance mediated by expression of marA, soxS, or robA in Escherichia coli. Journal of Bacteriology. 1997;179(19):6122-6126.
Isken S, de Bont JA. Bacteria tolerant to organic solvents. Extremophiles. 1998;2(3): 229-238.
Torres S, Pandey A, Castro GR. Organic solvent adaptation of Gram positive bacteria: Applications and biotechnological potentials. Biotechnology Advances. 2011; 29(4):442-452.
Segura A, et al. Solvent tolerance in gram-negative bacteria. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 2012;23(3):415-421.
Matsumoto M, Mochiduki K, Kondo K. Toxicity of ionic liquids and organic solvents to lactic acid-producing bacteria. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering. 2004;98(5):344-347.
León R. et al. Organic solvent toxicity in photoautotrophic unicellular micro-organisms. Enzyme and microbial techno-logy. 2001;29(2-3):173-180.
Bassetti L, Tramper J. Organic solvent toxicity in Morinda citrifolia cell suspensions. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 1994;16(8):642-648.
Barahona-Gomariz M, Sanz-Barrera F, Sánchez-Fortún S. Acute toxicity of organic solvents on Artemia salina. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 1994;52(5):766-771.
Sato A, Nakajima T. Pharmacokinetics of organic solvent vapors in relation to their toxicity. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 1987;81-93.
Wypych G. Handbook of solvents. ChemTec Publishing; 2001.
Donoghue AM, Dryson EW, Wynn-Williams G. Contrast sensitivity in organic-solvent-induced chronic toxic encepha-lopathy. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 1995;37(12): 1357-1363.
Mottu F, et al. Organic solvents for pharmaceutical parenterals and embolic liquids: A review of toxicity data. PDA Journal of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology. 2000;54(6):456-469.
Gamberale F. Use of behavioral performance tests in the assessment of solvent toxicity. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 1985;65-74.
Brautbar N, Williams II J. Industrial solvents and liver toxicity: Risk assess-ment, risk factors and mechanisms. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 2002;205(6):479-491.
Yabannavar V, Wang D. Strategies for reducing solvent toxicity in extractive fermentations. Biotechnology and Bio-engineering. 1991;37(8):716-722.
Schenker MB, Jacobs J. Respiratory effects of organic solvent exposure. Tubercle and Lung Disease. 1996;77(1):4-18.
Dryson E, Ogden J. Organic solvent induced chronic toxic encephalopathy: Extent of recovery, and associated factors, following cessation of exposure. Neuro-toxicology. 2000;21(5):659-665.
Andrade Z, Carlos K, Alves LM. Environmentally benign solvents in organic synthesis: Current topics. Current Organic Chemistry. 2005;9(2):195-218.
Horváth IT. Solvents from nature. Green Chemistry. 2008;10(10):1024-1028.
Sheldon RA. Green solvents for sustaina-ble organic synthesis: State of the art. Green Chemistry. 2005;7(5):267-278.
DeSimone JM. Practical approaches to green solvents. Science. 2002;297(5582): 799-803.
Blanchard LA, et al. Green processing using ionic liquids and CO2. Nature. 1999; 399(6731):28.
Jessop PG. Searching for green solvents. Green Chemistry. 2011;3(6):1391-1398.
Simon MO, Li CJ. Green chemistry oriented organic synthesis in water. Chemical Society Reviews. 2012;41(4): 1415-1427.
Chanda A, Fokin VV. Organic synthesis “on water”. Chemical Reviews. 2009; 109(2):725-748.
Grieco PA. Organic synthesis in water. Springer Science & Business Media; 2012.
Gawande MB, et al. Benign by design: Catalyst-free in-water, on-water green chemical methodologies in organic synthesis. Chemical Society Reviews. 2013;42(12):5522-5551.
Seyler C, et al. Waste-solvent management as an element of green chemistry: A comprehensive study on the Swiss chemical industry. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 2006; 45(22):7700-7709.
-
Abstract View: 11245 times
PDF Download: 12831 times
Download Statistics
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
